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B.F Skinner, a leading 20th century psychologist who hypothesized that behavior was caused only by external factors, not by thoughts or emotions, was a controversial figure in a field that tends to attract controversial figures. In a realm of science that has given us Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung and Jean Piaget, Skinner stands out by sheer quirkiness. After all, he is the scientist who trained rats to pull levers and push buttons and taught pigeons to read and play ping-pong.
Besides Freud, Skinner is arguably the most famous psychologist of the 20th century. Today, his work is basic study in introductory psychology classes across the country. But what drives a man to teach his children’s cats to play piano and instruct his beagle on how to play hide and seek? Last year, Norwegian researchers dove into his past to figure it out. The team combed through biographies, archival material and interviews with those who knew him, then tested Skinner on a common personality scale.
They found Skinner, who would be 109 years old today, was highly conscientious, extroverted and somewhat neurotic—a trait shared by as many as 45 percent of leading scientists. The analysis revealed him to be a tireless worker, one who introduced a new approach to behavioral science by building on the theories of Ivan Pavlov and John Watson.
Skinner wasn’t interested in understanding the human mind and its mental processes—his field of study, known as behaviorism, was primarily concerned with observable actions and how they arose from environmental factors. He believed that our actions are shaped by our experience of reward and punishment, an approach that he called operant conditioning. The term “operant” refers to an animal or person “operating” on their environment to affect change while learning a new behavior.
Operant conditioning breaks down a task into increments. If you want to teach a pigeon to turn in a circle to the left, you give it a reward for any small movement it makes in that direction. Soon, the pigeon catches onto this and makes larger movements to the left, which garner more rewards, until the bird completes the full circle. Skinner believed that this type of learning even relates to language and the way we learn to speak. Children are rewarded, through their parents’ verbal encouragement and affection, for making a sound that resembles a certain word until they can actually say that word.
Skinner’s approach introduced a new term into the literature: reinforcement. Behavior that is reinforced, like a mother excitedly drawing out the sounds of “mama” as a baby coos, tends to be repeated, and behavior that’s not reinforced tends to weaken and die out. “Positive” refers to the practice of encouraging a behavior by adding to it, such as rewarding a dog with a treat, and “negative” refers to encouraging a behavior by taking something away. For example, when a driver absentmindedly continues to sit in front of a green light, the driver waiting behind them honks his car horn. The first person is reinforced for moving when the honking stops. The phenomenon of reinforcement extends beyond babies and pigeons: we’re rewarded for going to work each day with a paycheck every two weeks, and likely wouldn’t step inside the office once they were taken away.
Today, the spotlight has shifted from such behavior analysis to cognitive theories, but some of Skinner’s contributions continue to hold water, from teaching dogs to roll over to convincing kids to clean their rooms. Here are a few:
1. The Skinner box. To show how reinforcement works in a controlled environment, Skinner placed a hungry rat into a box that contained a lever. As the rat scurried around inside the box, it would accidentally press the lever, causing a food pellet to drop into the box. After several such runs, the rat quickly learned that upon entering the box, running straight toward the lever and pressing down meant receiving a tasty snack. The rat learned how to use a lever to its benefit in an unpleasant situation too: in another box that administered small electric shocks, pressing the lever caused the unpleasant zapping to stop.
2. Project Pigeon. During World War II, the military invested Skinner’s project to train pigeons to guide missiles through the skies. The psychologist used a device that emitted a clicking noise to train pigeons to peck at a small, moving point underneath a glass screen. Skinner posited that the birds, situated in front of a screen inside of a missile, would see enemy torpedoes as specks on the glass, and rapidly begin pecking at it. Their movements would then be used to steer the missile toward the enemy: Pecks at the center of the screen would direct the rocket to fly straight, while off-center pecks would cause it to tilt and change course. Skinner managed to teach one bird to peck at a spot more than 10,000 times in 45 minutes, but the prospect of pigeon-guided missiles, along with adequate funding, eventually lost luster.
3. The Air-Crib. Skinner tried to mechanize childcare through the use of this “baby box,” which maintained the temperature of a child’s environment. Humorously known as an “heir conditioner,” the crib was completely humidity- and temperate-controlled, a feature Skinner believed would keep his second daughter from getting cold at night and crying. A fan pushed air from the outside through a linen-like surface, adjusting the temperature throughout the night. The air-crib failed commercially, and although his daughter only slept inside at night, many of Skinner’s critics believed it was a cruel and experimental way to raise a child.
4. The teaching box. Skinner believed using his teaching machine to break down material bit by bit, offering rewards along the way for correct responses, could serve almost like a private tutor for students. Material was presented in sequence, and the machine provided hints and suggestions until students verbally explained a response to a problem (Skinner didn’t believe in multiple choice answers). The device wouldn’t allow students to move on in a lesson until they understood the material, and when students got any part of it right, the machine would spit out positive feedback until they reached the solution. The teaching box didn’t stick in a school setting, but many computer-based self-instruction programs today use the same idea.
5. The Verbal Summator. An auditory version of the Rorschach inkblot test, this tool allowed participants to project subconscious thoughts through sound. Skinner quickly abandoned this endeavor as personality assessment didn’t interest him, but the technology spawned several other types of auditory perception tests.
One of the most popular games you can play right now is GamePigeonBattleship or Sea Battle. It is a game which feels a lot like the Battleship you used to play as a child, but you don’t have to worry about getting the coordinates right or keeping all of those little pieces in the same place.Instead, you just have to worry about finding the ship. To play Sea Battle on iPhone, you need to have the GamePigeon application installed and toggled on. Then, you need to find a willing opponent.
The game can last a long time if you aren’t smart about the way you play. A lot of GamePigeonSea Battle strategy will revolve around offense. You need to make smart calls. However, your defense matters as well. You should place your boats in smart places.
In this guide, we will cover how to play Sea Battle on GamePigeon, how to place your boats, and how to make guesses. Read on to become the Sea Battle master.
How to Play Sea Battle on GamePigeon
If you’ve played Battleship before, you know how Sea Battle works. It is basically the same premise. There aren’t any surprises or tricks here. Even so, not everyone has played this game, so here are some basic steps:
- Start by positioning your ships around the board. All players can move their ships as they wish. You cannot put them diagonally, but you can put them horizontally and vertically. You want to keep the ships far enough apart so they don’t sit right next to each other. If you do this, the boxes around the ship will turn red until you move them.
- Guess where your enemy placed his or her ships. You can pick one square at a time. If you land in water, the box will get a dot in it. If you hit the ship, you will feel a slight shake on your phone, and you will see smoke. If you hit a ship, you can guess again. If you miss, it is your enemy’s turn.
- When you have successfully guessed all the squares your enemy’s ship sits in, you will see the ship appear and all the dots around the ship will fill in.
- Keep going until you have hit all of your opponent’s ships.
The game goes back and forth and can take a long time to play, depending on how fast your opponent answers. If you want to play a shorter game, you can change the size of the grid and decrease the number of ships.
GamePigeonSea Battle Strategy: Defense
When positioning your boats, be smart about it. Don’t put everything into one corner or put every ship around the edges. This is a good way to create a pattern people will easily see. You also want to change up your strategy every time you play the game.If you are going to put any ships along the edges of the board, consider putting the biggest ships there. This way, you can eliminate the number of free spaces your opponent gets when they do sink your big ship. As the biggest ships are the ones most likely to be struck first, you will take away some of your opponent’s advantages.
If you have large areas of open water, this is the best place to put those little ships which are really difficult to find. Usually, these are the last ships of the game. They aren’t captured in the checkerboard pattern if you place them well.
The best thing you can do for the offense is to think about your placement. Don’t just allow the AI to set them up for you. Think about a checkerboard and pick a color (this is a strategy we will talk about in defense). Do not place all your small ships on what would be the same color.
GamePigeonSea Battle Strategy: Offense
When you are guessing which squares to hit, there are a few different things to consider. The first is that your opponent will have done many of the same things you did in the offense. Start by guessing around the edges and then moving your way into the center.
When guessing, most people will guess in a checkerboard pattern. This involves thinking of the Battleship board as a checkerboard. Pick either red or black and only aim for those squares. This will help you to pick up many of the boats, but not all of them. Some people decide to make a giant X with every other square to help divide the board. You can also do this by making a plus sign (+).
When you hit a ship, keep going until you have knocked it out. Some people think it is best to find them all and then start, but you are hitting more water that way. When a ship is completely hit, the boxes around it will fill in, meaning you don’t have to guess those. As you cannot put boats in that area, it is a great way to eliminate bad moves.
If you play with your friends on a regular basis, start to remember their moves. Some people will play with most of their ships around the edge and then go to the center.
GamePigeonSea Battle Cheats
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Unfortunately, apart from stealing someone else’s phone, there aren’t any cheats for this game. The only thing you can really do is learn how particular people play and use that to your advantage.Sea Battle is a great way to enjoy this classic game. You get the addition of sounds and haptics, which makes it feel a bit more like the old plastic game that so many of us remember. However, you don’t have to worry about having those little red and white tokens all over your house.